Misconception: The term “global warming” means the temperature is getting warmer everywhere. “Global warming” sounds to many (including me) like the temperature should be warming everywhere. If there is “global warming” shouldn’t it be getting warmer where I live? Or, if it’s not getting warmer where I live, how can “global warming” be happening!

If you look at the recent temperature records from several GLOBE schools, the temperature does seem to be warming gradually in some places. But other schools show a cooling trend. It is the same way with the stations used to monitor climate change. As noted in my July 2008 blog, the global average temperature change is often much less than the trends at local sites.

The term “global warming” really means that the yearly average of the temperature averaged over all the Earth’s surface is rising over time scales of several years.

Misconception: We just had a month that was the coldest on record. That means that the climate has started to cool again. When I stop thinking like a scientist, I also briefly think – or hope – that a cold month means that “global warming” will go away. But a record cold day or month doesn’t mean that the climate is getting cooler on the long term.

In a warming climate, there are still changes in both directions from day to day, month to month, and year to year. But there will be fewer record cold months. And there will be more periods of record high temperatures. For example, the city of Chicago in the Midwestern United States is having more heat waves, as illustrated by Figure 1 (taken from the blog, “Regional Climate Change, Part I: Iowa Dew Points and Chicago Heat Waves,” 22 March 2007).

Figure 1. Temperatures during Chicago, Illinois, USA heat waves. While the graph was made to show how the dew point has risen during the heat waves, the increase of the number of points (heat waves) with time shows that there are more heat waves than there used to be. Figure based on data from Changnon et al. (Climate Research, 2003).

Misconception: Earth’s temperature will steadily warm (as in “This year is warmer than last year, and next year will be warmer than this year.”). The globally-averaged yearly temperature record in Figure 2 has many dips and peaks. It is well-known that strong El Nino events, through spreading warm water across the tropical Pacific, will cause peaks in the record (There were strong El Ninos for example in 1982-3 and 1997-8). Similarly, volcanic eruptions can cool the surface temperatures globally for a year or two.

Figure 2. Annual average temperatures, averaged over the Earth. Data from the UK Hadley Centre.

There will be even more extreme year-to-year changes locally. Some regions will have colder-than-normal periods due to persistent airflow from the Polar Regions. At the same time, there will have to be compensating airflow toward the poles in other regions, which will have warmer-than-normal periods. If you look at any local temperature record, such is the one in Figure 3; there are year-to-year changes that are faster than the overall warming trend. Even though there is a general upward trend in temperature as indicated by the straight line, the warmest year on record was 2000. On the other hand, 1998 was the warmest year in Figure 2.

Figure 3. Average annual temperature at the GLOBE School 4. Zakladi Skola in Jicin, Czech Republic. From 15 July 2008 blog.

Misconception: The “warming” scientists write about is not real. Many thermometers are showing warmer temperatures because their surroundings have changed over time, and this affects the global average You can find web sites showing weather stations next to buildings, air-conditioning heat exhausts, and so on. So this is certainly true for some sites. However, climate scientists try very hard to eliminate such sites from the climate record. There are literally thousands of weather stations in the United States today, and a similar density of sites exist in other parts of the developed world. These are used for many things, such as weather forecasting, keeping track of weather at airports or along roads or railroad tracks, or for education and outreach purposes by television stations or schools. But only a small fraction of these are used to document the global change in temperature. It is important to know that the temperature at any station is not taken at face value. Each measurement is checked carefully. For example, each station is compared to nearby stations to see if their temperatures are biased or just plain wrong.

At the GLOBE Learning Expedition, we saw a climate-monitoring station, on a rocky hill at the southern tip of Africa, away from any urban influence (11 August 2008 blog). And, only 30 per cent of the Earth’s surface is covered by land – the other 70% of the area is over the ocean. There, ships, buoys, and now satellites supply the needed measurements.

This does not mean that the warming recorded by sites that were once rural but are now surrounded by cities is not telling us something. Cities are warmer than the surrounding rural areas. They have more concrete and asphalt, which means that more of the incoming solar radiation is converted to heat rather than used in photosynthesis or evaporation. Also, factories, buildings, cars, and even people release energy that warms the environment. If you move from a rural area to a city, you will experience a warmer climate. However, this “urban heat island” has only a small effect on the global average because cities cover only a small fraction of Earth’s surface (See “Land Use: How Important for Climate, 11 June 2008).

Also, we need to remember that the famous surface-temperature curve shown in Figure 2 is not the only evidence that the climate is getting warmer. Satellite data also indicate warming at and near Earth’s surface, as does the shrinking of most glaciers and the smaller extent and thickness of Arctic sea ice (see, e.g., http://svs.gsfc.nasa.gov/goto?3464) . Furthermore, sea level is rising slowly, a result of more water in the ocean basins (from the melting of ice on land) and expansion (as the water gets warmer). And there is more water vapor in the atmosphere than there used to be, consistent with more evaporation (to be expected from water land and sea surface temperatures as well as warmer air).

If you go to the FLEXEforum Web page, you will find a plot that shows how the temperature varies with depth at a tropical site (9° N latitude) which should not differ too much from the Hawaiian region (20° N, 157° W).

The temperature inside the submersibles reached 15-16° C when they were 400 m below the surface. How cold was it in the water outside? If the graph applies (it should be close), the temperature outside was a bit cooler – more like 12-13° Celsius. If they could go down farther, they would have reached even cooler temperatures.

Why does the ocean get cooler farther down?

In the ocean, the wind stirs up the water. This results in a “mixed layer,” which is about 100 m deep in the figure. If we magnified the upper part of the figure, you would find that the temperature very near the surface can change with depth. When the wind is calm, the sun will heat up just the upper part of the ocean, and it can get quite warm. Flying over the ocean on a calm day, you can find pools of warm water — 30° C and higher in the tropics. Sometimes this water is recently fallen rain, which is less salty and hence less dense than ocean water, and thus won’t mix down as well as salty water when the wind blows. The instrument used — an infrared thermometer — is much like the one used in the GLOBE surface temperature protocols.

But this is only part of the story. From the Web site above, click your mouse to see ocean temperature profiles in other parts of the world. In the high latitudes, the surface water temperatures are much cooler, about 3° Celsius in the figure. This cold water, being dense (water is densest at 4° Celsius), can sink and spread out near the bottom of the ocean, beneath the warmer waters at lower latitudes.

Thinking about the SCUBAnauts, explore the FLEXE Web site further. There is even a link on the right hand side to try your hand at piloting a submersible (Alvin). And you can now follow the FLEXE Research Cruise and read a Teacher’s Blog from the FLEXE cruise where she and scientists are studying temperature variation in the extreme deep-sea environment, and looking to see how the vent ecosystem has changed since a major seafloor eruption two years ago! You can access all of these links from the GLOBE FLEXE page. Check back often for updates and during the week of December 17th and a link to a Phone Call from the Extreme between the research cruise and the GLOBE Program office.

Temperature as a function of depth, measured at 9 Degrees North. For further information about this plot and what is means, visit the FLEXEforum Web page.

The students made several interesting observations.

First, it was very dark by the time the submersibles made it to the sea floor, at about 400 meters. Life that depends on photosynthesis cannot exist below about 200 m underwater. (Remember when the students climbed, less air was exposing them to more ultraviolet light! Heights and depths make a big difference!)

Second, the submarine in the picture looks “like new.” “Why?” I wondered. I had read that sunken ships were often the home to coral reefs. A look on the Web indicates that most corals need sunlight to live, because the algae in the corals need sunlight for photosynthesis. The submarine, at 400 meters below the surface, is in the darkness, so corals can’t grow.

Third, there is still life there in the dark oceans. Some of the life we see at the surface. Sperm whales can dive 500 to 1000 meters below the surface to get food. Some animals in the dark depths feed off raining organic matter from above. Or they feed on animals that swam down from higher up.

And some life finds the energy needed to survive at the deepest ocean depths. FLEXE scientists are studying life in much deeper waters. This life depends on nutrients and a chemical source of energy that seep out of cracks in the ocean bottom, rather than the energy found in sunlight. You can learn more about FLEXE and monitor a FLEXE Research Cruise and a Teacher’s Blog of the cruise through these links.

Fourth, the divers have to go to 400 m in a submersible because of the enormous pressures at these depths. Remember that about 10 meters of water is equivalent to one atmosphere of pressure? At 400 m, weight of the water is around 40 atmospheres, so the total pressure is 41 x atmospheric pressure, counting the weight of the air as well as the water.

Day 12 – 22 October 2007

Location: Waters off Honolulu, Hawaii
Event: Deep Sea Exploration in Pisces IV and V Submersibles

Collin (Pisces V)

Anna and I arrived at the Hawaii Undersea Research Lab (HURL) vessel, Ka’imikai-O-Kanaloa (KOK), at seven o’clock Monday morning. We were brought to the vessel by my Uncle Ed Scheiffer since we stayed at his house last night. It was a beautiful morning with blue skies and calm waters typical of each day we have been in Hawaii so far. As Anna and I boarded the KOK, Terry Kerby and crew were busy preparing the ship and submersibles for departure so we were rushed to board and stow our gear.

I was extremely excited for this mission because I was finally doing it. After all the preparation and training, I was finally going to descend in a manned submersible to a great depth. It was something I never imagined I would be doing, especially at my age. Maybe it was because I was nervous, but it seemed that immediately after we boarded, the KOK left the dock and made for our destination.

Breakfast on the ship was great. They had a little of everything. But I was a bit nervous and wasn’t able to eat much. I was still thinking that there wouldn’t be a bathroom in the submersible so I didn’t want to eat or drink much. Although somewhat rushed, it was a great start to the day. On the way out, we had a fire drill which I was told was standard practice.

It wasn’t long before we reached our ship’s destination and began to prepare for the launching of the submersibles. I was to be the first in the water. When we received the OK, I began to make my way to the Pisces V (Anna was in Pisces IV), which was the submersible I would dive in. Then I made my way up the ladder and boarded through the hatch on top of the submersible. Once inside, the computer consoles and everything was lit up and it looked and felt as if I was in a space shuttle preparing for lift off and moving into a place where not many have ever gone before. I was overwhelmingly excited while we were lifted by a massive winch from the mother ship (KOK) and placed in the ocean. By the time I felt we were detached from the boat and we were on our own, I could feel the adrenaline pumping through my body.

While we were on the surface, Terry Kerby, the submersible pilot, conducted a systems check and we then started on our way to the depths of the ocean. As we descended deeper and deeper, the color of the ocean around us became darker and darker as we strayed from the sunlight. When we reached bottom, at about 1300 feet (about 400 m), it looked like something you would see on the sci-fi (science-fiction) channel. I observed orange fish that walk on the bottom, and corals that some of us have never even seen before. I can’t even describe how splendid it felt to be sitting in a submersible 1300 feet below the surface looking out into a world hidden in darkness. Everything looked amazing and peaceful on the bottom.

I was overwhelmed with awe all the way through the seven hour dive in the cramped sphere. It was difficult to move about, so the best position was to simply lie down. When we started our descent we already knew we were in the vicinity of the Japanese Midget sub that was sunk in WWII. We found the exact location by using sonar. Using the sonar, I was able to pick up shapes and objects great distances away from the sub. After about a half an hour of searching, we came across the midget sub and honed in. Suddenly, the stern side of the midget sub was staring straight at us. We had found it! I was overwhelmed at the sight. Looking at such a historical submarine that people rarely ever get a chance to see in all their life was fantastic. The sub appeared to be in great shape, exactly as it was when it was seen last.

After we were finished viewing the midget sub, we decided to move south and explore ocean that Terry Kerby has not yet seen. As we were moving south, our depth was increasing and the feeling in the sub was tense. We had no idea what to expect. Once, unexpectedly, a deep sea shark actually came up from under the sub and swam by the porthole. Other forms of life that we saw were different corals living on rock piles and fish we had not seen before. We also used the robotic arm to pick up two mugs and a Coca-Cola bottle from years ago. We made a final depth of about 1800 feet, and then we got the go ahead to rise from the depths. So, with that call we released the weights, and started to ascend. Once we were on the surface I felt that I accomplished something very special and that I enjoyed every part of the dive, but after seven hours in a tight space it felt good to climb out of the sub and walk.

Now that I am once again back on the ship and the submersible is secured, I have had an opportunity to reflect on this great and wonderful lifetime experience and what I have learned from it. One thing is for sure, that I have a deeper appreciation and respect for these scientists and submersible pilots and the work that they do. I also have a greater appreciation for the risks that famous explorers had undertaken before me. And I believe that I felt very much like they did at one time when we maneuvered Pisces V to discover ocean bottom that has not yet been seen by human eyes. It is an exhilarating experience and accomplishment.

Anna (Pisces IV)

I am glad that Collin went first, because I was able to watch Pisces V enter the water. First the three of them entered the sub which was then closed and the chase boat was deployed. Second, the giant wench placed the sub in the water and a man jumped from the chase boat to the top of the sub to disconnect it from the “mother ship.” Then Pisces V started to “dive, dive, dive.”

Then the Pisces IV was moved forward in preparation for the entry. Someone that worked on the boat came over and told me that I was the youngest person to go into the submersibles (Collin is older than me). Usually the youngest are grad students. Then I was told to climb the ladder and at the top I had to unfurl the Explorer’s Club Flag, I was so afraid of dropping it in the cool breeze.

Then I went down onto the submersible and Max and Bryan were also in, then our entry began. The sub was closed at 10:26am; we didn’t enter the water till 10:33am. 10:38 we began to sink and we reached the bottom at 10:55am. The sea floor was pretty and mostly sand and few rocks. Right away I was amazed to see this snake, eel type thing that was probably between 1 and 2 feet long. I also saw a few other types of eels, starfish, hermit crabs, shrimp, puffer fish, an octopus, and some small fish.

With the help of the mother ship and Terry Kerby we finally found the Japanese midget sub at 11:40am, the depth was 406.04 meters. At 3:00pm we were cleared to ascend and surfaced at 3:28pm. By 3:36pm the mother ship began to pull us in and I was standing on deck at 3:40pm.

Well my Hawaiian trip is ending, but I have made some of the greatest achievements of my life on this trip. I know I will never forget this. I am so thankful that I was chosen to represent not only SCUBAnauts, but my generation of youth explorers. This trip has, without a doubt, changed my life. I have a new confidence of the others that climbed the mountain with me and a new confidence in myself. This may affect my career because before this I had never considered exploration, research, marine sciences or even the military field.

On my last day with Mark Fowler he said, “You need to work through the valleys to make it to the peaks.” I think that this quote perfect to represent this trip. We worked through the valleys in preparing physically and mentally, also through some of the problems like the boat’s leaks. The “peaks” of this trip are pretty obvious.

When we were on a field program in the South Pacific, divers had not only to watch their dive profiles — they were forbidden to fly the day after a dive. This is because of the possibility that the aircraft might lose pressure at altitude. Also, aircraft at altitude aren’t pressured to surface pressure but to around 6000 feet.

In contrast, cabin pressure in the space shuttle is equivalent to sea level, according to Robert Mellette of the Yale New Haven Teachers Institute.

Day 8 – 18 October 2007

The two groups have rejoined and spent the day on four dives. The deepest one was to about 100 ft. They must follow strict control of their dive profiles to be able to complete all the dives. Several of them broke their profiles and had to sit out the last dives. The ODC students were also still recovering from the climb up Mauna Kea and two were too tired to make the dives.

The first dive is on a wreck, and the students did some archaeological surveys, using the techniques they learned in the classroom and practiced from shore the day before with Dr. Hans Van Tilburg.

The day ended with a talk by Astronaut and Shuttle Mission Commander Dom Gorie, who will take the ODC banner with him on his space shuttle mission, scheduled to launch 14 February 2008.

Madison – 13
SNI participant

We did a dive at the Yard Oiler wreck. I went to about 70 feet. There were huge turtles on the deck of the ship. We also saw a few Humuhumunukunukuapua’a, Hawaii’s state fish (a triggerfish). The second dive was on a reef. We saw a white tip and I did a swim-through. We also saw a sleeping sea turtle. Our third dive was on a flipped barge. We did photography with Dr. Gleason. There was a current. After our dives, we had a lecture given by Commander Dom Gorie, an astronaut. He told us about NASA and his previous and upcoming trips into space.

Mack – 15
Operation: Deep Climb participant

The first dive was a wreck dive. The wreck was in about 100ft of water and it was called the YO. After the first dive most of the ODC was tired so we stayed on the boat and took a nap. After the second dive we went back to port for a quick lunch and then it was right back onto the boat for the last two dives. The third dive was a wreck where we had to measure its length and width. On this dive most people broke there profile so most of us did not dive the fourth dive.

David – 15
Operation: Deep Climb participant

The water here was so much clearer than in the Tampa Bay. We had fun.

Anna – 16
Operation: Deep Climb participant

Today we went diving with Island Divers. The ODC kids and I had to rent gear. For the first dive I was buddies with Santannah, and we dove on a wreck, I saw sea turtles. I was very tired and wasn’t up to the second dive. Then we docked for lunch and went back out for two more dives.

I did the first dive of the afternoon, but I broke my dive profile, so did many other people. Only about five people were able to do the last dive. It didn’t bother me that I missed it because I just enjoyed watching a sunset from a boat in Hawaii. What more could you ask for?

Tonight we had pizza while Commander Gorie (Andrew’s Dad) told us about his career as an astronaut.

Many of you probably like dinosaurs, and I do too. The methods used by paleontologists are similar to those used by archaeologists. (Although I knew about underwater archaeology, I had never heard of underwater paleontology, until I searched the Web did and found work on Mastadons in the Aucilla River in the Florida Panhandle.) I have been on dinosaur digs with the Denver Museum of Nature and Science. At each dig a person is assigned to locate every bone dug up and how it was oriented, so that you can later draw a map showing where the bones were found. These relative locations can give you clues about what was going on when and after the dinosaurs died. In archaeology, relative locations at some sites can give you clues about what was happening when people lived there.

On the land or underwater, mapping and careful observations make sense. When you are in the field you are not only “doing science” but coping with some discomforts (on the dinosaur dig, dust, insects, heat, and bright sunlight; or if you are underwater, challenges associated with communicating or recording underwater and currents, as noted in the blog below). And most people cannot remember details when they need them later. So, you record the locations of artifacts or bones as carefully as possible, so that you have the important facts when you are trying to make sense of your discoveries later on. Cameras are useful too – as you will see from the nice photographs below.

Day 7 – 17 October 2007

Madison – 13
SNI participant

We had a classroom session about Maritime Archaeology, and learned how to create maps using a baseline.

Gage – 13
SNI participant

Today we woke up early to go see Doctor Hans VanTilburg about underwater archeological studies. Then we went to a dive on a beach to take archeological surveys on old equipment for a sugarcane plantation. Josh and I took measurements of a steam powered crane.

Connor
SNI participant

Today we did our archeological dive. It was a shore dive with an annoying current that kept on pushing back and forth, and mix that with trying to take measurements and you get a pain in the rear. The dive was nice though, and the site we were at was an old rusty piece of machinery used for plantations I think.

Notice that we could estimate the air pressure the climbers were experiencing on Mauna Kea. What about the pressure below the water? A rule of thumb is that the pressure increases by about one atmosphere (1013 hectoPascals or hPa) for each 10 m below the surface. While the Operation Deep Climb hikers were experiencing an air pressure of around 696 hPa at 3200 m elevation, the SNI articipants were experiencing a total pressure of:

You can feel air pressure changes if you go up or down quickly in an elevator, in airplane, or on a mountain road: your ears “pop” as pressure from the inside and outside balance. (The air inside a commercial aircraft at cruising altitude is pressurized so that the pressure is about 15% lower than at sea level — much higher of course than it is outside!)

Day 5 – 15 October 2007

Madison
SNI participant

We went to a black sand beach. The most durable minerals survived when the lava flows are eroded, they wash up on the beach, forming black sand. There were many turtles on the rocks.

Then we went to the southern-most point of the U.S. It was a cliff that dropped off into the Pacific.

Later we did our first dive in Hawaii! The first dive was in Garden Eel Cove, it was a 40 minute dive at 50 feet (15 meters). We saw a garden eel and lots of urchins. The coral was really pretty. Our second dive, a night dive, was also at Garden Eel Cove. It was an hour long and at 40 feet. We sat at the bottom in a circle, and huge manta rays came overhead. Sometimes they got really close to the top of your head. They were 15-20 feet (4.6 – 6.1 meters) across, and the baby was about 6 feet (1.8 meters). Their mouths were about a foot across (0.3 meters). The water was turbulent because the rays were disrupting it while swimming around. They came to the lights to feed on the light-attracted plankton.

Connor
SNI participant

The black sand beach was incredible! We saw many crabs, fish, and even a baby eel in one of the tide pools, and a couple of turtles resting on the beach.

We also had our first dives of the trip today, our first dive was o.k. we got to swim around and see garden eels, colorful reefs, and fish.

But, the first dive was nothing compared to the second dive, which was the most amazing dive I’ll ever go on! It was the manta ray dive, which was so awesome. We got about 10 manta rays, which is pretty good the captain said, because sometimes they don’t get any. But, it was the coolest thing ever!

Day 2 – 12 October 2007

Tutors Academic Institute Journals
4 students aged 12-15
SNI team participants

On our first day in Hawaii, we went to Hanauma Bay for a bit of snorkeling. Hanauma Bay is a Hawaii state park, and we watched a movie in order to learn the rules and etiquette of the park. We saw a great number of fish including the Parrot Fish; a Sea Turtle; the Hawaii state fish, the Humuhumunukunukuapua’a; the Bird Nose Wrasse; a Long Nose Butterfly fish; and a number of urchins. This was a very interesting and educational experience.

Our next adventure of the day had to do a bit with Hawaiian culture; we participated in a luau. The luau consisted of a number of traditional Hawaiian activities such as: lei making, spear throwing, pictures with birds, trips in a canoe, traditional Polynesian tattoos.

The food wasn’t half bad either. The traditional foods served were: Kailua pork, coconut custard, and macadamia nut encrusted mahi mahi. Along with our meal, we were entertained with traditional song and dance, which included fire throwing.

Savannah – 14
Operation: Deep Climb participant [ODC]

The next day we were to go to Hanauma bay. Our expedition was postponed because the boat had problems so we all got to snorkel. This was the best news you could expect to hear when you didn’t think you would get time to do anything like that because the ODC kids should have been gone by now. Before we could actually go in the bay we had to take a class that would teach us how to take care of the reef that was there. The bay was home to many species of fish and coral and they are trying their best to keep it as well as possible. The class lasted about 60 minutes and then we were off. Taylor was of course my buddy. We had fun and explored most of the reef. The reef was beautiful and the fish were amazing. After Hanauma bay it was time for lunch. We couldn’t really go anywhere so someone brought us wraps, gummies, and raisins. I thought the food was delicious, but I didn’t have too much time to enjoy it. In the middle of lunch we were told that a local Hawaiian news reporter wants to interview the ODC kids about the mission we would be completing. All the kids went with Jen and she took us to a park where the reporter met with us and asked us questions. They were excited about what were doing and just about as excited as us.

After the interview we all took showers and got on a bus that would take us to a Hawaiian luau. The luau was so much fun. They had games, and some of us got tattoos. We ate traditional Hawaiian food which was a different kind of experience. We even got pulled up to go on stage. I got to participate in a Hawaiian fish catching ceremony. After the luau I was so tired but I couldn’t go to sleep after having all that that fun. We were forced to go to sleep to get ready for the next day.

Anna – 16
Operation: Deep Climb participant

I really enjoyed the drive across the island of Oahu, mostly because a majority of the time you were able to see the majestic mountain range to one side and the enticing coastline on the other. On the way we passed Diamond Head Crater, which was formed from a volcano that had collapsed. We arrived at Hanauma Bay and spent some time recording clouds and taking a class about the history and some rules of snorkeling in the bay. I saw an octopus, which was really exciting because I have never see one while diving.

Tonight Captain Olson told us that there was a leak on the research vessel that the rest of the Operation Deep Climb team and I were to stay on, the Ka`imikai-o-Kanaloa or KOK, and there is a possibility of us climbing the mountain first. At first I thought of telling Captain Olson that I wasn’t going to be able to do it because I wasn’t mentally prepared and I also doubted my physical capabilities. After thinking about it for a few hours now I think, I might be able to, but I’m not sure. We came back to the BOQ [Bachelor Officer's Quarters] to go to sleep. My roommate is Sarah, well it’s time for bed, I’ll write more tomorrow.